"Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek).[3] Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (航天员, meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff").
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In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader cosmos, while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars.[13] Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.[14] When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut".[15][16]
In Chinese, the term Yǔ háng yuán (宇航员, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[29][30] while hángtiān yuán (航天员, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, hángtiān (航天, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly[31] defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase tàikōng rén (太空人, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.[32]
The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen, who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-16.[62] Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard, broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit; he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space, twice.[63][64] The oldest person to reach space is William Shatner, who was 90 years old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-18.[65] The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn, one of the Mercury 7, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95.[66] For greater detail on age records, see list of spaceflight records Age records.
Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[108]
A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions, including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills (dexterity), but also slightly weaker vision, both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.[116][117]
Each year, NASA marks the loss of the Columbia crew, as well as the crews of the Challenger space shuttle and Apollo 1, on the last Thursday of January; the fatal missions are also regularly referenced when NASA personnel discuss the importance of prioritizing safety in human spaceflight.
NASA official: The astronaut training program will last probably two years. During this time our urgent goal is to subject these gentlemen to every stress, each unusual environment they will experience in that flight. Before the first flight, we will have developed our Mercury spaceship to the point where it will be as reliable as man can devise.
Walter Cronkite: In these final days before the launch of this Gemini flight, now scheduled for next Tuesday, dozens of contractors in dozens of buildings all over Cape Kennedy are going through the final tests of their pieces of equipment that will be in this complex booster and spacecraft when they blast off from pad nineteen.
Wernher von Braun: Well, my assessment of Zond 5, that was the Soviet spacecraft that looped the Moon and re-entered over the Indian ocean, and was successfully recovered by Soviet ships in the Indian Ocean - was a dress-rehearsal for a manned flight.
It was a trip he had waited thirty years for. Polyakov finished medical school in Moscow in 1965, just four years after his countryman Yuri Gagarin completed the first manned spaceflight. That flight and other Soviet and American orbital flights that followed inspired Polyakov to specialize in space medicine. In 1972, he began training to monitor other cosmonauts during their flights and to prepare for eventual spaceflights of his own.
Russia has been hosting tourists at the space station -- and before that the Mir station -- for decades. Just last fall, a Russian movie crew flew up, followed by a Japanese fashion tycoon and his assistant.
Friday`s flight is the second private charter for Elon Musk's SpaceX, which took a billionaire and his guests on a three-day orbit ride last year. SpaceX's fifth flight of NASA astronauts to the station is coming up in just a couple weeks.
Andy began his career as a software engineer but wrote science fiction stories in his spare time. His novel, THE MARTIAN, was a blockbuster success which has allowed him to pursue his writing full-time. He is a lifelong space nerd and a devoted hobbyist of subjects such as relativistic physics, orbital mechanics, and the history of manned spaceflight. 2ff7e9595c
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